About 2,890 kilometres beneath our feet lies a gigantic ball of liquid metal: our planet’s core. Scientists like me use the seismic waves created by earthquakes as a kind of ultrasound to “see” the shape and structure of the core.

Using a new way of studying these waves, my colleague Xiaolong Ma and I have made a surprising discovery: there is a large donut-shaped region of the core around the Equator, a few hundred kilometres thick, where seismic waves travel about 2% slower than in the rest of the core.

We think this region contains more lighter elements such as silicon and oxygen, and may play a crucial role in the vast currents of liquid metal running through the core that generate Earth’s magnetic field. Our results are published today in Science Advances.

The ‘coda-correlation wavefield’

Most studies of the seismic waves created by earthquakes look at the big, initial wavefronts that travel around the world in the hour or so after the quake.

We realised we could learn something new by looking at the later, fainter part of these waves, known as the coda – the section that brings a piece of music to its end. In particular, we looked at how similar the coda recorded at different seismic detectors were, several hours after they began.

In mathematical terms, this similarity is measured by something called correlation. Together, we call these similarities in the late parts of earthquake waves the “coda-correlation wavefield”.

By looking at the coda-correlation wavefield, we detected tiny signals stemming from multiple reverberating waves we wouldn’t otherwise see. By understanding the paths these reverberating waves had taken and matching them with signals in the coda-correlation wavefield, we worked out how long they had taken to travel through the planet.

We then compared what we saw in seismic detectors closer to the poles with results from nearer the Equator. Overall, the waves detected closer to the poles were travelling faster than those near the Equator.

We tried out many computer models and simulations of what conditions in the core could create these results. In the end, we found there must be a torus – a donut-shaped region – in the outer core around the Equator, where waves travel more slowly.

Seismologists have not detected this region before. However, using the coda-correlation wavefield lets us “see” the outer core in more detail, and more evenly.

Previous studies concluded that waves moved more slowly everywhere around the “ceiling” of the outer core. However, we have shown in this study that the low-velocity region is only near the Equator.

The outer core and the geodynamo

Earth’s outer core has a radius of around 3,480km, which makes it slightly bigger than the planet Mars. It consists mainly of iron and nickel, with some traces of lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, sulfur, hydrogen and carbon.

The bottom of the outer core is hotter than the top, and the temperature difference makes the liquid metal move like water in a pot boiling on the stove. This process is called thermal convection, and we think the constant movement should mean all the material in the outer core is quite well mixed and uniform.

But if everywhere in the outer core is full of the same material, seismic waves should travel at about the same speed everywhere, too. So why do these waves slow down in the donut-shaped region we found?

We think there must be a higher concentration of light elements in this region. These may be released from Earth’s solid inner core into the outer core, where their buoyancy creates more convection.

Why do the lighter elements build up more in the equatorial donut region? Scientists think this could be explained if more heat is transferred from the outer core to the rocky mantle above it in this region.

There is also another planetary-scale process at work in the outer core. Earth’s rotation and the small solid inner core make the liquid of the outer core organise itself in long vertical vortices running in a north–south direction, like giant waterspouts.

The turbulent movement of liquid metal in these vortices creates the “geodynamo” responsible for creating and maintaining Earth’s magnetic field. This magnetic field shields the planet from harmful solar wind and radiation, making life possible on the surface.

A more detailed view of the makeup of the outer core – including the new-found donut of lighter elements – will help us better understand Earth’s magnetic field. In particular, how the field changes its intensity and direction in time is crucial for life on Earth and the potential habitability of planets and exoplanets.

Hrvoje Tkalčić, Professor, Head of Geophysics, Director of Warramunga Array, Australian National University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Imagine a group of young men gathered at a picturesque college campus in New England, in the United States, during the northern summer of 1956.

It’s a small casual gathering. But the men are not here for campfires and nature hikes in the surrounding mountains and woods. Instead, these pioneers are about to embark on an experimental journey that will spark countless debates for decades to come and change not just the course of technology – but the course of humanity.

Welcome to the Dartmouth Conference – the birthplace of artificial intelligence (AI) as we know it today.

What transpired here would ultimately lead to ChatGPT and the many other kinds of AI which now help us diagnose disease, detect fraud, put together playlists and write articles (well, not this one). But it would also create some of the many problems the field is still trying to overcome. Perhaps by looking back, we can find a better way forward.

The summer that changed everything

In the mid 1950s, rock’n’roll was taking the world by storm. Elvis’s Heartbreak Hotel was topping the charts, and teenagers started embracing James Dean’s rebellious legacy.

But in 1956, in a quiet corner of New Hampshire, a different kind of revolution was happening.

The Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence, often remembered as the Dartmouth Conference, kicked off on June 18 and lasted for about eight weeks. It was the brainchild of four American computer scientists – John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester and Claude Shannon – and brought together some of the brightest minds in computer science, mathematics and cognitive psychology at the time.

These scientists, along with some of the 47 people they invited, set out to tackle an ambitious goal: to make intelligent machines.

As McCarthy put it in the conference proposal, they aimed to find out “how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans”.

The birth of a field – and a problematic name

The Dartmouth Conference didn’t just coin the term “artificial intelligence”; it coalesced an entire field of study. It’s like a mythical Big Bang of AI – everything we know about machine learning, neural networks and deep learning now traces its origins back to that summer in New Hampshire.

But the legacy of that summer is complicated.

Artificial intelligence won out as a name over others proposed or in use at the time. Shannon preferred the term “automata studies”, while two other conference participants (and the soon-to-be creators of the first AI program), Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, continued to use “complex information processing” for a few years still.

But here’s the thing: having settled on AI, no matter how much we try, today we can’t seem to get away from comparing AI to human intelligence.

This comparison is both a blessing and a curse.

On the one hand, it drives us to create AI systems that can match or exceed human performance in specific tasks. We celebrate when AI outperforms humans in games such as chess or Go, or when it can detect cancer in medical images with greater accuracy than human doctors.

On the other hand, this constant comparison leads to misconceptions.

When a computer beats a human at Go, it is easy to jump to the conclusion that machines are now smarter than us in all aspects – or that we are at least well on our way to creating such intelligence. But AlphaGo is no closer to writing poetry than a calculator.

And when a large language model sounds human, we start wondering if it is sentient.

But ChatGPT is no more alive than a talking ventriloquist’s dummy.

The overconfidence trap

The scientists at the Dartmouth Conference were incredibly optimistic about the future of AI. They were convinced they could solve the problem of machine intelligence in a single summer.

This overconfidence has been a recurring theme in AI development, and it has led to several cycles of hype and disappointment.

Simon stated in 1965 that “machines will be capable, within 20 years, of doing any work a man can do”. Minsky predicted in 1967 that “within a generation […] the problem of creating ‘artificial intelligence’ will substantially be solved”.

Popular futurist Ray Kurzweil now predicts it’s only five years away: “we’re not quite there, but we will be there, and by 2029 it will match any person”.

Reframing our thinking: new lessons from Dartmouth

So, how can AI researchers, AI users, governments, employers and the broader public move forward in a more balanced way?

A key step is embracing the difference and utility of machine systems. Instead of focusing on the race to “artificial general intelligence”, we can focus on the unique strengths of the systems we have built – for example, the enormous creative capacity of image models.

Shifting the conversation from automation to augmentation is also important. Rather than pitting humans against machines, let’s focus on how AI can assist and augment human capabilities.

Let’s also emphasise ethical considerations. The Dartmouth participants didn’t spend much time discussing the ethical implications of AI. Today, we know better, and must do better.

We must also refocus research directions. Let’s emphasise research into AI interpretability and robustness, interdisciplinary AI research and explore new paradigms of intelligence that aren’t modelled on human cognition.

Finally, we must manage our expectations about AI. Sure, we can be excited about its potential. But we must also have realistic expectations, so that we can avoid the disappointment cycles of the past.

As we look back at that summer camp 68 years ago, we can celebrate the vision and ambition of the Dartmouth Conference participants. Their work laid the foundation for the AI revolution we’re experiencing today.

By reframing our approach to AI – emphasising utility, augmentation, ethics and realistic expectations – we can honour the legacy of Dartmouth while charting a more balanced and beneficial course for the future of AI.

After all, the real intelligence lies not just in creating smart machines, but in how wisely we choose to use and develop them.

Sandra Peter, Director of Sydney Executive Plus, University of Sydney

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskidsus@theconversation.com.

Why are some people able to visualize scenarios in their minds, with colors and details, and some people are not? – Luiza, age 14, Goiânia, Brazil

Imagine you are in a soccer match, and it’s tied. Each team will begin taking penalty kicks. The crowd is roaring, and whether or not your team wins the game depends on your ability to hit the shot. As you imagine this scene, are you able to picture the scenario with colors and details?

Scientists are hard at work trying to understand why some people can visualize these kinds of scenarios more easily than others can. Even the same person can be better or worse at picturing things in their mind at different times.

As neuroscientists in the fields of physical therapy and psychology, we think about the ways people use mental imagery. Here is what researchers do know so far.

The brain and mental imagery

Mental imagery is the ability to visualize things and scenarios in your mind, without actual physical input.

For example, when you think about your best friends, you may automatically picture their faces in your head without actually seeing them in front of you. When you daydream about an upcoming vacation, you may see yourself on the sunny beach.

People who dream about taking a penalty kick could visualize themselves like they are watching a video of it in their mind. They may even experience the smell of the turf or hear the sounds that fans would make.

Scientists believe your primary visual cortex, located in the back of your brain, is involved in internal visualization. This is the same part of the brain that processes visual information from the eyes and that lets you see the world around you.

Another brain region, located in the very front of the brain, also contributes to mental imagery. This structure, called the prefrontal cortex, is in charge of executive functions – a group of high-level mental skills that allow you to concentrate, plan, organize and reason.

Scientists have found such skills to be, at least to some extent, related to one’s mental imagery ability. If someone is good at holding and manipulating large amounts of information in mind, this person can play with things like numbers or images in their mind on the go.

Experiencing and remembering

Most of the same brain areas are active both while you’re actually experiencing an event and also when you’re visualizing it from a memory in your head. For example, when you behold the beauty of the Grand Canyon, your brain creates a memory of the image. But that memory is not simply stored in a single place in the brain. It’s created when thousands of brain cells across different parts of the brain fire together. Later, when a sound, smell or image triggers the memory, this network of brain cells fires together again, and you may picture the Grand Canyon in your head as clearly as if it were in front of you.

Benefits of mental imagery

The ability to mentally visualize can be helpful.

Notice the look of concentration on a gymnast’s face before competition. The athlete is likely visualizing themselves executing a perfect rings routine in their mind. This visualization activates the same brain regions as when they physically perform on the rings, building their confidence and priming their brain for better success.

Athletes can use visualization to help them acquire skills more quickly and with less wear and tear on their bodies. Engineers and mechanics can use visualization to help them fix or design things.

Mental visualization can also help people relearn how to move their bodies after a brain injury. However, with additional practice, those who do not use visualization will eventually catch up.

Nature-nurture interactions

All is not lost if you have difficulty visualizing. It is possible that the ability to visualize in your mind is a combined effect of both how your individual brain works and your life experiences.

For example, taxi drivers in London need to navigate very complicated streets and, scientists found, experience changes to their brain structures over the course of their careers. In particular, they develop larger hippocampuses, a brain structure related to memory. Scientists believe that the training the taxi drivers went through – having to visualize a map of complex streets across London in daily driving – made them better at mental imagery via changes in their hippocampus.

And watching someone else do a physical action activates the same brain areas as creating your own internal mental imagery. If you want to be able to do something, watching a video of someone else doing it can be just as helpful as visualizing yourself doing it in your head. So even if you struggle with mental visualization, there are still ways to reap its benefits.

Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.

And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.

Lynne Gauthier, Associate Professor of Physical Therapy and Kinesiology, UMass Lowell and Jiabin Shen, Assistant Professor of Psychology, UMass Lowell

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

In August many Australian universities have open days as Year 12 students make up their minds about what they want to study next year.

There will be lots of things for prospective students to think about – including what course they want to study and what career they want to pursue.

Beyond questions about study content, there are five other important aspects to investigate about university life. These can have an impact on how much you enjoy your studies and how much you are supported to succeed.

1. Academic supports

Studying at university is different from school. You need to be more independent and there is less time “in class” (lectures or tutorials). This can be an adjustment for some students.

Check out what kinds of support are available to help students meet academic expectations. Some questions you could ask include:

• what academic writing resources and supports are available?

• can I get help to understand the expectations of essay writing and other forms of assessment?

• can the library support me with database searches and referencing?

• are there peer-supported study groups for my course?

• what online learning platform is used and do we get an orientation?

• can I use ChatGPT for assignments and what is the university’s approach to the use of AI?

2. Health and wellbeing services

Study at university can coincide with health and wellbeing challenges for students. You may be worried about study deadlines or cost-of-living, or there may be other things going on in your life you need help with. Some questions you could ask include:

• what resources are available to help manage my health and wellbeing?

• are there counsellors or mental health professionals?

• is there a general practice or health clinic on campus?

• is there a pharmacy?

• are urgent mental health services accessible at all times?

• what supports are available if I need help with access and inclusion?

3. Work-life-study balance

Many students need to work part-time to support themselves and have family or other life commitments. This can be challenging if deadlines all come at once or your schedule is very full.

Ask your university about how healthy work-life-study balance can be supported. This is of particular concern if your course has mandatory work experience placements. You could ask:

• are there flexible study options?

• can I start or switch to part-time study during my course or term?

• how and when can I take a study break or leave of absence?

• is there an option to complete part of my degree remotely?

4. Living costs

Being a student is typically a time of life when money is tight. But this is made even more difficult during cost-of-living and housing crises.

Ask about the full costs of study. Along with course fees or loans, check out the associated costs (such as equipment or textbooks) as well as potential supports. Specifically you could ask:

• does the university offer emergency financial assistance?

• is there financial counselling?

• are there grants and scholarships and help to apply for these?

• what materials do I need to buy for my course?

• are there student discounts at local businesses to help reduce living expenses?

Also, don’t forget there are government payments available for eligible students.

5. Social supports and community

A significant part of enjoying university will be feeling as if you belong. So consider universities that foster inclusive environments and offer supportive networks. Some questions to ask include:

• how does the university ensure students from diverse backgrounds are included and represented in campus activities and decision-making?

• are there specific programs to support First Nations students?

• what resources and support services are available for LGBTQIA+ students?

• what supports can I access if I have disability?

Choosing a university isn’t just about the course or the degree – it’s finding your fit in a place that will help you realise your study and life goals. So, keep asking questions – academics, university staff and students at open days are there to help.

Christopher Patterson, Associate Professor, School of Nursing, University of Wollongong and Catherine Stephen, Lecturer, School of Nursing,, University of Wollongong

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

It is the season of university open days and study decisions for Year 12 students.

As an academic, the question I get asked most by students and parents is, “will this degree lead to a job?”.

It is understandable. However, it isn’t necessarily the right question to ask as young people consider what course will suit them best.

Focusing solely on immediate job prospects (“degree equals job”) can limit the understanding of what university courses actually provide.

What is a degree for?

A degree isn’t merely a gateway to employment, it’s the foundation for a life of professional and personal development.

Students often begin a university course with a specific career path in mind, only to discover new interests that lead them in unexpected directions.

For example, a student might start a design degree dreaming of becoming a fashion designer, only to find the demands of the industry clash with their introverted nature. Instead, they might discover a passion for sustainable textiles, a field requiring meticulous material research.

Their design degree didn’t lead to one end point, but gave them the opportunities to learn what they were really suited to, and the skills to pursue this.

Not about becoming an expert in one thing

University education is also not just about mastering a subject, it’s about acquiring transferable skills, such as problem solving, communication and the ability to work in diverse situations with diverse people.

It is also about developing critical thinking and the ability to assess evidence. These skills can then be applied to many ideas and issues.

In today’s unpredictable, technology-driven world, new jobs emerge quickly, while others fade away. A university degree should equip students with the adaptability to navigate these changes, rather than simply slotting into existing job categories.

So, instead of asking whether a degree will directly lead to a job, consider these following five questions.

1. What skills will I develop in this program?

Creative degrees, for example, encourage critical thinking, creativity, technical skills, and the ability to articulate and present ideas, skills that are highly valued across many fields.

An arts or health sciences degree may also encourage valuable critical thinking and research skills.

2. Are there opportunities for practical experience?

Look for courses that offer internships, industry projects and practical workshops. These experiences help students build professional networks and gain insights about what they really like (and don’t like) about different types of work.

3. Will the course expose me to diverse cultural contexts?

Consider programs that offer international exchange opportunities. These experiences can be transformative, broadening students’ cultural perspectives and enhancing their sensitivity and awareness to diverse cultural environments. They also cultivate maturity and independence by challenging students to navigate unfamiliar environments with their peers.

4. How does this course encourage resilience and lifelong learning?

Seek out courses that emphasise creativity, experimentation, independent thinking and teach in hands-on learning environments.

Such courses teach students to cope with change – a skill they will need in fast-evolving workplaces. It also prepare students for a lifetime of continuous learning, which is essential for sustained career growth and personal development.

5. What have recent graduates done with this degree?

Exploring the diverse paths of graduates can provide a realistic view of a degree’s possibilities.

On open days, seek out workshops and current students and staff. Ask about further study options – do students in a certain course often need (or want) to do postgraduate study?

And remember

Whatever students choose to study it’s important they do something they are truly interested in. Education can and should be enjoyable.

Cherine Fahd, Associate Head of School, School of Design, University of Technology Sydney

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

OK, tell me if you’ve heard this one: what did the percussionist say when they landed their first job?

“Would you like fries with that?”

It’s just a joke, right? Unfortunately for many aspiring percussionists even getting a foot in the door to complete a university qualification yet alone secure full time, paid and ongoing work as a professional musician is not too far from this reality.

While there are endless percussionist jokes to make – and there are thousands – I think we seriously underestimate the expertise, musicianship and teamwork percussionists bring to the orchestra and our favourite music. Not to mention the years of practice, heavy lifting, early set-ups, late pack downs, counting endless bars of rest, waiting for the vital moment in a symphony, and the mastery required to play the many instruments demanded of both “classical” and contemporary orchestral repertoire.

Let’s take a moment to appreciate the humble percussionist, what it takes to train as a professional drummer, and their sometimes less-than-obvious valuable contributions to the music we love.

A difficult road

Most large university Bachelor of Music programs will offer an average of 40 positions per year. Few accepted will be pianists and percussionists.

A quick internet search of the nine professional orchestras in Australia reveals there is an average of 2.8 percussionists (including timpanists, who specialise in only the timpani, or kettledrums, rather than playing the wide variety of other instruments) per orchestra, out of a total of over 500 professional positions within Australian orchestras.

Permanent paid and full-time orchestral jobs are extremely competitive. This is especially true in Australia, as we have so few professional symphony orchestras compared to around the world. Like other artists in Australia, percussionists face higher rates of under- or unemployment, and lower incomes than others with similar levels of training.

The precarious work of contract artists also involve high hidden costs and unremunerated self-development costs. For many percussionists, making a living is extremely difficult.

Juggling many balls

Orchestral percussionists must be true multi-instrumentalists.

Except for timpani, which tend to be a speciality within itself, percussionists must navigate and master an ever-growing world of instruments in addition to the traditional orchestral percussion to meet the modern repertoire demands spanning far past “classical music”.

Everything from a giant hammer (I’m looking at you Mahler!), to African talking drums, the Indonesian gamelan and thunder sheets. Then there is the myriad of tuned percussion – instruments that can play melodies, for example the xylophone, marimba, tubular bells and glockenspiel – all the way to the humble triangle.

Each instrument comes with its own playing technique, cultural history and significance, mechanism of sound production and instrument maintenance requirements. Not to mention choosing the correct mallet or beater to make the timbre (sound quality) required of the music, expected by the composer, and what the conductor wants.

In addition to counting endless bars of rest and being masters of rhythm, the percussionist faces a unique challenge that no other instrument in the orchestra has to battle. Once the instrument is struck, shaken or scraped there is nothing the musician can do to change the quality of the sound.

A violinist or flautist can alter the movement of their bow or expression of air. However, can you imagine the pressure to produce perfection every time while being completely assured you are playing at the exact vital moment in a symphony?

And there’s no one else to copy because, you’re it!

To add to this, percussionists within an orchestral concert will be responsible for multiple parts and instruments. That requires some serious organisation and knowledge of the repertoire being played. Consider frequently performed works such as Holst’s Planets requiring not one but two timpanists on two sets of timpani to seamlessly manage our favourite melodies in Jupiter: The Bringer of Jollity.

Perhaps not such a jolly time for the percussionists.

A mainstay of culture

Can we really imagine our favourite car-sing-along song without that driving rhythm that gets our heart pumping and fingers tapping? The timpani in a much-loved symphony or suite? How about the famous Hedwig’s theme from Harry Potter without the celeste (a piano-like instrument with chime bards instead of strings) bringing a certain magic and mystery? Or Bluey without the textures, timbres and narratives captured through percussion instruments?

With perhaps the exception of the human voice, percussion instruments were the first attempts of music used by our cave dwelling ancestors. Music may have evolved, but percussion endures.

Around the world, percussion is universal. Without these diverse sounds we would be all the poorer. We cannot imagine a world without the rich tapestry of timbres percussion instruments and their musicians offer. Not only in terms of music, but also when it comes to ritual, celebration, entertainment and culture beyond the concert hall.

Even as audiences we use percussion to express our delight and gratitude through applause.

So next time you see someone at the back of the orchestra with their many varied percussion instruments, take a moment to reflect on and thank these masters of rhythm and timbre as part of the music you love.

Claire Nicholls, Lecturer in Music Education, University of Southern Queensland

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

About one-third of the global population, around 3 billion people, don’t have access to the internet or have poor connections because of infrastructure limitations, economic disparities and geographic isolation.

Today’s satellites and ground-based networks leave communications gaps where, because of geography, setting up traditional ground-based communications equipment would be too expensive.

High-altitude platform stations – telecommunications equipment positioned high in the air, on uncrewed balloons, airships, gliders and airplanes – could increase social and economic equality by filling internet connectivity gaps in ground and satellite coverage. This could allow more people to participate fully in the digital age.

One of us, Mohamed-Slim Alouini, is an electrical engineer who contributed to an experiment that showed it is possible to provide high data rates and ubiquitous 5G coverage from the stratosphere. The stratosphere is the second lowest layer of the atmosphere, ranging from 4 to 30 miles above the Earth. Commercial planes usually fly in the lower part of the stratosphere. The experiment measured signals between platform stations and users on the ground in three scenarios: a person staying in one place, a person driving a car and a person operating a boat.

My colleagues measured how strong the signal is in relation to interference and background noise levels. This is one of the measures of network reliability. The results showed that the platform stations can support high-data-rate applications such as streaming 4K resolution videos and can cover 15 to 20 times the area of standard terrestrial towers.

Early attempts by Facebook and Google to commercially deploy platform stations were unsuccessful. But recent investments, technological improvements and interest from traditional aviation companies and specialized aerospace startups may change the equation.

The goal is global connectivity, a cause that brought the platform stations idea recognition in the World Economic Forum’s 2024 Top 10 Emerging Technologies report. The international industry initiative HAPS Alliance, which includes academic partners, is also pushing toward that goal.

Fast, cost effective, flexible

Platform stations would be faster, more cost effective and more flexible than satellite-based systems.

Because they keep communications equipment closer to Earth than satellites, the stations could offer stronger, higher-capacity signals. This would enable real-time communications speedy enough to communicate with standard smartphones, high-resolution capabilities for imaging tasks and greater sensitivity for sensing applications. They transmit data via free-space optics, or light beams, and large-scale antenna array systems, which can send large amounts of data quickly.

Satellites can be vulnerable to eavesdropping or jamming when their orbits bring them over adversarial countries. But platform stations remain within the airspace of a single country, which reduces that risk.

High-altitude platform stations are also easier to put in place than satellites, which have high launch and maintenance costs. And the regulatory requirements and compliance procedures required to secure spots in the stratosphere are likely to be simpler than the complex international laws governing satellite orbits. Platform stations are also easier to upgrade, so improvements could be deployed more quickly.

Platform stations are also potentially less polluting than satellite mega-constellations because satellites burn up upon reentry and can release harmful metals into the atmosphere, while platform stations can be powered by clean energy sources such as solar and green hydrogen.

The key challenges to practical platform stations are increasing the amount of time they can stay aloft to months at a time, boosting green onboard power and improving reliability – especially during automated takeoff and landing through the lower turbulent layers of the atmosphere.

Beyond satellites

Platform stations could play a critical role in emergency and humanitarian situations by supporting relief efforts when ground-based networks are damaged or inoperative.

The stations could also connect Internet of Things (IoT) devices and sensors in remote settings to better monitor the environment and manage resources.

In agriculture, the stations could use imaging and sensing technologies to help farmers monitor crop health, soil conditions and water resources.

Their capability for high-resolution imaging could also support navigation and mapping activities crucial for cartography, urban planning and disaster response.

The stations could also do double duty by carrying instruments for atmospheric monitoring, climate studies and remote sensing of Earth’s surface features, vegetation and oceans.

From balloons to airplanes

Platform stations could be based on different types of aircraft.

Balloons offer stable, long-duration operation at high altitudes and can be tethered or free-floating. Airships, also known as dirigibles or blimps, use lighter-than-air gases and are larger and more maneuverable than balloons. They’re especially well suited for surveillance, communications and research.

Gliders and powered aircraft can be controlled more precisely than balloons, which are sensitive to variations in wind speed. In addition, powered aircraft, which include drones and fixed-wing airplanes, can provide electricity to communication equipment, sensors and cameras.

Next-generation power

Platform stations could make use of diverse power sources, including increasingly lightweight and efficient solar cells, high-energy-density batteries, green hydrogen internal combustion engines, green hydrogen fuel cells, which are now at the testing stage, and eventually, laser beam powering from ground- or space-based solar stations.

The evolution of lightweight aircraft designs coupled with advancements in high-efficiency motors and propellers enable planes to fly longer and carry heavier payloads. These cutting-edge lightweight planes could lead to platform stations capable of maneuvering in the stratosphere for extended periods.

Meanwhile, improvements in stratospheric weather models and atmospheric models make it easier to predict and simulate the conditions under which the platform stations would operate.

Bridging the global digital divide

Commerical deployment of platform stations, at least for post-disaster or emergency situations, could be in place by the end of the decade. For instance, a consortium in Japan, a country with remote mountainous and island communities, has earmarked US$100 million for solar-powered, high-altitude platform stations.

Platform stations could bridge the digital divide by increasing access to critical services such as education and health care, providing new economic opportunities and improving emergency response and environmental monitoring. As advances in technology continue to drive their evolution, platform stations are set to play a crucial role in a more inclusive and resilient digital future.

Mohamed-Slim Alouini, Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology and Mariette DiChristina, Dean and Professor of the Practice in Journalism, College of Communication, Boston University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

The Polaris Dawn mission has been attracting lots of attention because it will feature the first ever spacewalk by commercial space travellers. There are many reasons why this is a landmark mission. But, with its ambition comes a degree of risk.

The mission is backed by Elon Musk’s company SpaceX and there are no professional astronauts among the crew. Flying aboard the mission is a businessman, a fighter pilot and two SpaceX employees. The mission represents an emerging parallel track in orbital spaceflight which is privately funded compared to the upcoming government-backed US Artemis missions to return humans to the Moon.

The four crew members of Polaris Dawn are currently scheduled to launch in a SpaceX Crew Dragon capsule from Florida’s Kennedy Space Center on Wednesday, August 28. During the five day mission, they will travel further from Earth than any humans have been since the Apollo missions, heading up to 1,400 km in altitude.

In addition to the spacewalk, the crew will travel through portions of the Van Allen radiation belts – zones of energetic charged particles around Earth. This will allow them to carry out tests aimed at understanding the effects of space radiation on human health.

Other experiments include one related to how the eyes and vision system respond in microgravity. The crew will also test a laser-based communication system in space. This will provide data for future space communications systems that could be used on missions to the Moon and Mars.

The spacecraft’s commander is Jared Isaacman, an American businessman who is flying on a commercial SpaceX mission for the second time. The retired US Air force lieutenant colonel Scott Poteet will serve as the mission’s pilot. Sarah Gillis, is a mission specialist, and is the lead space operations engineer at SpaceX.

Gillis is scheduled to perform the spacewalk, known formally as an extravehicular activity (EVA), together with Isaacman. Finally, Anna Menon is a mission specialist and medical officer on the flight. Like Gillis, she is a SpaceX employee who leads space operations and is a mission director at the company.

The spacewalk will be somewhat different to the type we’ve become used to seeing from International Space Station (ISS), where two astronauts will usually go outside while the rest of the crew stays inside the pressurised station.

The Dragon capsule has a hatch rather than an airlock. This means that the spacecraft’s whole interior will have to be depressurised and exposed to the vacuum of space when Isaacman and Gillis exit through the hatch to carry out their spacewalk 435 miles (700km) above Earth. All four crew members will therefore be receiving their life support through spacesuits while the EVA is underway.

The crew are wearing EVA suits designed by SpaceX that will be used for the first time on this flight. These are considerably more streamlined than those used by Nasa astronauts aboard the ISS. The design of the older Nasa suit, called the Extravehicular Mobility Unit, has stayed much the same for more than 40 years.

However, the bulkiness of Nasa’s suits is in part because they have a life support system incorporated into a backpack. By contrast, during the spacewalk, Isaacman and Gillis will receive life support to their suits through long tubes called umbilicals which are attached to the capsule.

Ambitious objectives

The significance of the Polaris Dawn EVA can’t be understated. Spacewalks have been reserved for government-backed space travellers since Alexei Leonov became the first human to step outside a space capsule on the Soviet Voskhod 2 mission in 1965. The first spacewalk by an all-commercial crew is a key moment in the history of spaceflight.

The ambitious objectives of this mission, however, do also make it somewhat dangerous. While all the crew members are extremely capable and have been well trained for this mission, there are no professional astronauts aboard to advise. It is also the first spaceflight for three of the four crew members.

Having said all this, Polaris Dawn is an inspiring endeavour. It’s common these days to hear criticism of spaceflight along the lines of: “instead of going to space, why don’t rich people give away some of their money to those in need on Earth?”

During Inspiration4, Jared Isaacman’s first spaceflight, aboard a Crew Dragon capsule, the businessman raised more than US$240 million (£181 million) for the St Jude Children’s Research Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee. For this mission, he is planning to replicate that success.

The Polaris Dawn website allows internet users to donate to the St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, with the goal of improving the detection and treatment of childhood cancer around the globe. The crew members will also conduct several health-related experiments during the mission, with the aim of advancing medical research.

This is the first of three missions in a privately-funded Polaris Program. As more commercial missions take place, the cost of access to orbit will come down. This will help democratise spaceflight, opening it up to those who are not professional astronauts or super-rich.

Hopefully, it will also inspire the younger generation to see space not as the final frontier, but as a natural expansion of humans beyond the limits of Earth.

The mission will use the Dragon spacecraft named Resilience, which is the vehicle flown in 2020 for the first full mission to launch US astronauts from American soil following the retirement of the Nasa space shuttle a decade earlier.

The connection between the achievements of the past and the amazing results of the present is the most intriguing part of the story here. At least that’s how I see it as a child of the Apollo era, and apparently now, as a member of the Artemis generation.

Simonetta Di Pippo, Director of the Space Economy Evolution Lab, Bocconi University

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In 1534, King Henry VIII infamously broke away from the Catholic Church, becoming the head of the Church of England. Following this, two lesser-known acts were passed, the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1535 and the Suppression of Religious Houses Act 1539 (also known as the “two Acts of Dissolution”).

These acts were the legal instruments of what is now known as the dissolution of the monasteries, a long process throughout which the hundreds of priories, convents, friaries, and other religious houses which fell under the English monarch’s rule saw their holdings confiscated by the Crown. In doing so, Henry unwittingly set in motion a series of events that would forever change how scholars of English history would access the primary sources used in research.

Because monasteries had served various roles throughout history, the dissolution had wide-ranging consequences. It changed the landscape of England, with religious buildings slowly entering private hands – but it also changed the scholarly landscape.

Many of Britain’s early historians came from monasteries (often in the form of chroniclers), including Gerald of Wales, Bede the Venerable and Roger Bacon. As record-keepers, they also preserved the primary sources that continue to be studied by researchers today.

Manuscripts, like the religious houses’ other possessions, slowly changed hands in the decades following the dissolution. The king took several manuscripts for himself and more were taken and hidden by former members of the orders, or local inhabitants. Likely thousands disappeared.

The extent of the loss, while difficult to estimate, was extensively researched by Anglo-Saxonist and palaeographer (handwriting analysis expert) Neil Ripley Ker in his book, Medieval Libraries of Great Britain which was first published in 1941. This research is now available as a continually updated database through the combined efforts of current scholars.

Where did the manuscripts go?

Over the past decades, bibliographical research has shown that some were gathered by local, and often little-known, collectors. As for the rest, the writings of contemporary antiquaries (the people interested in the material remains of the past) provide precious information on what existed before the dissolution took place, how much disappeared, and how.

From 1533, English poet and antiquary John Leland undertook the arduous task of inventorying the most important manuscripts from the monastic houses, listing his work to date in a then-unpublished address commonly known as the Newe Yeares Gyfte, in 1546. Meanwhile, Leland’s associate John Bale compiled a Summary of the Famous Writers of Great Britain, founded upon Leland’s work and first published in Latin in 1548, for which the preparatory notes survive in Oxford’s Bodleian Library.

Bale’s preface to the Newe Yeares Gyfte tells us that many of the manuscripts ended up cut up for use as candlesticks or boot polishing cloth, some were sold to foreign nations, and many to book binders.

Such recycling had already taken place in the past. The membrane (treated animal skin, also known as parchment or vellum) from which most manuscripts were made could be reused to make new books, notably as binding material, and also had less obvious but not less useful afterlives. It would continue for many years to come, too. Notably, one of the copies of the Magna Carta allegedly had to be rescued from a tailor’s shop in 1629.

The Magna Carta in question found its way into the collection of antiquary Sir Robert Cotton. Like other collectors before him, Cotton sought to preserve the witnesses of British history, in particular, the now-dispersed monastic manuscripts. His collection still survives today, as the Cotton manuscripts became one of the foundational collections of the British Library.

The dissolution itself came at a turning point in historical methods. The 16th century saw the spreading through England of a new intellectual movement coming from Italy, where it had begun over a century earlier: humanism. Renaissance humanism was concerned (at first) with the study of the classical world, eventually producing a new culture of learning involving the re-evaluation of historical sources (including the aforementioned manuscripts).

On the continent, this often involved consulting the texts in the monasteries themselves. In England, where the monasteries no longer existed, these sources found their ways into the hands of the scholar-collectors who wished to use them, like Matthew Parker and Cotton.

Neither Parker nor Cotton limited themselves to gathering these documents. Their libraries were the centre of research circles, which used, edited, and sometimes published original manuscripts using another continental creation – the printing press. While antiquaries were not necessarily historians, and have generally been considered more interdisciplinary, their work facilitated historical research through both the preservation and the dissemination of primary sources.

Historical research has evolved a lot since the 16th century. The sources saved from destruction or dispersion at the time of the dissolution have been read, re-read, translated, studied, and contextualised in many ways since the days of the early antiquaries.

Henry VIII may have never intended to endanger these manuscripts. However, it is indisputable that the dissolution had a profound effect on English and indeed British scholarship, marking the minds of budding humanistic historians, and giving them unprecedented access to original documents.

Besides its impact on the historiography of its time, the dissolution could have drastically changed the sources we continue to use. Without the preservationist impulse of collectors, the surviving manuscripts may have well disappeared into tailor and cobbler shops, never to be seen again.

More than just a story of loss and destruction, the dissolution is also the story of efforts, both big and small, collective and individual, to preserve a country’s heritage in a time of great change and uncertainty.

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Raphaëlle Goyeau, PhD Student, University of East Anglia, School of Literature, Drama, and Creative Writing (LDC)., University of East Anglia

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Last week, quantum computers were added to Australia’s Defence and Strategic Goods List of controlled items facing export restrictions. That’s because quantum technologies – which may soon provide huge advances in computing, communication and sensing – are rapidly growing in strategic importance.

The AUKUS partnership between Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom includes arrangements for sharing quantum technologies. Last year, Australia and the UK agreed to cooperate on quantum by sharing research and expertise and encouraging investment. A similar arrangement was signed with the US in 2021.

Governments and businesses are jostling for economic, strategic and defensive advantage. Nobody knows which approaches to the technology will prove successful, nor which countries will come out ahead.

Despite this uncertainty, Australia needs to make decisions about investment and regulation or risk being left behind. We think the best way to do this is by creating an accord between government, private industry, tech workers and researchers to create consensus on the best way forward.

A controversial investment

In April, the federal and Queensland governments invested A$466 million each in a US company called PsiQuantum, which is aiming to build “the world’s first useful quantum computer”. The deal was widely criticised for a lack of transparency and for bypassing Australian companies.

Investing in quantum technology is highly uncertain and complex. Researchers around the globe are making rapid progress, and calls for countries to develop their own sovereign capability are growing louder. At the same time, there is no shortage of hype from companies and researchers promoting their own work.

Giant companies such as Google, IBM, Microsoft and AWS are sometimes seen as “leaders” in quantum tech, but there are many other players in the field.

Several are based in Australia. These include research institutions as well as companies such as Quintessence Labs, Diraq, Quantum Brilliance, Silicon Quantum Computing and Nomad Atomics.

Last year, our government published a national quantum strategy, but it’s unclear how it should be implemented in the current messy environment, even with CSIRO’s roadmap.

In April, the University of Sydney was awarded A$18.4 million to set up Quantum Australia to be the “single front door” for quantum in Australia. Quantum Australia is in its infancy and it’s still unclear what its governance capacity will be.

More broadly, tech policy researchers have called for a more coordinated and regulated national approach to technology policy.

Is it time for a national accord on quantum?

Other countries are taking a much stronger approach to quantum coordination and cooperation.

In Europe, the Quantum Flagship establishes a working agreement between industry, governments and academia. In the US, QED-C established a consortium of stakeholders from government, academia, and industry to “identify gaps in technology, standards, and workforce and to address those gaps through collaboration”. In the UK, the National Quantum Computing Centre brings together businesses, the research community and government to enable the UK to secure a competitive position in the quantum industry.

What might this kind of coordination look like in Australia? We think it might look like an accord: a structured and formal mechanism for articulating a range of different agendas.

Our research looked at quantum tech arrangements in Australia, the UK, the US, India and the EU. We found examples of inclusive, structured, formal arrangements that feature government, private industry, industry leaders, academic bodies and academic researchers.

Europe has the most complex and far-reaching governance structure with its Quantum Flagship. We think an Australian accord needs to include representatives of the tech workforce too.

In the 1980s, Australia’s Prices and Incomes Accord famously forged a “working partnership” between government, employers and unions. It came at a time of economic uncertainty in Australia as market liberalism was sweeping through the English-speaking world.

Could a quantum accord achieve a similar consensus today?

Why an accord?

Technological innovation and sovereign capability are key pillars of the government’s Future Made in Australia funding and reform package. This ambitious agenda will require commitment, coordination and leadership.

At present, government, local companies and local researchers are divided on the best way forward for quantum tech in Australia. A quantum tech accord could help address these conflicts. It could also help soothe tensions between the short-term interests of individuals and organisations and the long-term interests of the nation.

An accord could be a structured and consensus-building way to approach contested ideas about innovation, ethics, sovereignty, competitive advantage, regulation and skills. It could also help the Australian public better understand quantum technologies and the importance of domestic investment in these technologies, given there is little current understanding.

A practical mechanism for facing uncertainty

It is not easy to govern in the face of uncertain technological advancements and innovation. There may be no “right answers” to many decisions.

The advantage of a quantum tech accord is that it represents a practical mechanism pursued within economic, geopolitical and security constraints. It could provide an overarching governance structure and framework for coordinated policy and regulatory decision-making that favours consensus over seeming big-dog-eat-little-dog deals.

A quantum tech accord could embed Australia’s democratic values and governance into its purpose, terms and frameworks. This would also serve to establish a foundation for the ethical and responsible use of quantum technologies in the future.

Successive governments have committed billions to growing Australian quantum technology and fostering innovation. As a result of decades of sustained investment and funding of research and education, Australia’s growing quantum industry is up there with the best in the world.

Science and Industry minister Ed Husic has said the government does not want to repeat the mistakes of the past and miss the quantum wave. Maybe a quantum tech accord is an option to find a practical way forward.

The authors would like to thank UNSW Allens Hub Scholar Sally Song and UNSW Allens Hub Research Officer Jennifer Westmorland for their research assistance.

Susanne Lloyd-Jones, Cyber Security Cooperative Research Centre Post Doctoral Fellow, UNSW Sydney and Kayleen Manwaring, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law & Justice, UNSW Sydney

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Ecology has always fascinated Australian artists. Think of landscape painters like Arthur Boyd (1920–99), who was inspired by nature and committed his career and legacy to protecting it.

Boyd spent the latter part of his life painting the Shoalhaven River at Bundanon, New South Wales. The use of the land along the river for agriculture was causing erosion, disturbing soil, plant and animal life. With increased tourism and intensified use of the river, Boyd feared further destruction, and so Boyd and his wife bought land along the river during the 1970s – gifting it to the Australian people in 1993.

Since scientific studies began showing the undeniable human impacts on the climate, ecology and art have been brought together in new and urgent ways.

Ecological art can communicate the results of scientific studies, create opportunities for community-based interventions, and can even function in their own right as restorations of ecological systems.

Ecology and art

If you have ever enjoyed Sydney Park you were visiting the integrated environmental artwork Water Falls by Jennifer Turpin and Michaelie Crawford.

Water Falls consists of two sets of terracotta troughs, arranged in dramatic zig-zagging lines. As part of a constructed wetland ecosystem, the artwork harvests stormwater from the surrounding streets, preventing flooding and providing habitat for native animals. It is experienced as the rhythmic sight and sound of falling water. Ecology as art.

Ecological artists deal with the politics, language, culture, economics, ethics and aesthetics of ecology in ways that scientists sometimes fall short.

In 2012 and 2021, Tega Brain engineered an artificial wetland system which could also wash dirty clothes. Coin Operated Wetland shows how water, although often made invisible by the urban life it sustains, is always circulating and part of us and our cities.

Many First Nations artists have pointed out the entanglements of language and Country with ecological knowledge.

Quandamooka Artist Megan Cope makes sculptural installations that engage with local ecological systems. In her work Kinyingarra Guwinyanba (“a place of oysters”, 2022), she plants sea gardens with oysters to create “a living, generative land and sea artwork that demonstrates how art can physically heal country”.

Ecological art brings scientific language into the gallery and into our conversations. Using language in different ways can be a way of rethinking human relationships to land, water and atmosphere.

Topographies

There are currently two exhibitions in Sydney showcasing interdisciplinary research on climate change communicated in artistic ways.

Topographies at the Sydney College of the Arts engages with topography: the study of the forms and features of land surface. Curator Vicky Browne describes topographies here as “the process of marking out the shape of the world”.

Magnetic Topographies, an artist collective who are featured in the exhibition were in residence in Bundanon in 2023. They extend topographic research to “avian navigations”, “earthly togetherness” and “repellent terrain”.

Biljana Novakovic’s Listen for the Beginning (2024) is an enormous piece of light blue fabric is embroidered with coloured words and phrases layered over one another, an interpretation of Gooliyari, known as Cooks River, Sydney, and sometimes as Australia’s sickest urban river.

Ben Denham’s work A Topography of Air (2024) is a collection of multisensory ecological communications and interventions. Custom electronics, barometric pressure sensors, modular synthesisers and wooden boxes are combined with dried native grasses and “the atmosphere”. We feel as though we are in a laboratory – but we are not quite sure of the experiment, or what is being measured.

Alongside this work is another piece by Denham. Generalised Diagram (2024) employs the visual language of science in the form of a flow chart, black lines on a white page, pinned to the wall, showing feedback loops between oscillators, amplifiers, bodies, politics and the atmosphere.

Denham’s sculpture and flow chart work together to explain how to understand features on maps, in graphs, and in the terrain in sensory ways. “We see the visual form on a map, we feel pressure gradients on our skin,” Denham explains.

Living Water

At the University of New South Wales Library, Living Water celebrates 75 years of water research from faculties and institutions across NSW.

The River Ends at the Ocean is a collaborative project engaging with diverse knowledge about Gooliyari.

In 2021, Aunty Rhonda Dixon-Grovenor, Astrida Neimanis and Clare Britton led a group of approximately 60 walkers along the concreted banks, restored edges, and straightened channels of the estuary, following the tide out to Kyeemagh Beach.

At the entrance to the exhibition, a film of the walk by Aunty Rhonda Dixon-Grovenor layers over a flowing sketch by Britton of the Cooks River and its tributaries.

The drawing is based on the Cooks River Environment Survey and Landscape Design: Report of the Cooks River Project (1976) and helps us understand how the river catchment, and ecological knowledge about it, has changed over time.

Another collaborative creative work, Rippon Lea Water Story, (2023) explores waters, memory, plant and animal life, and infrastructure at Rippon Lea, a colonial estate in Melbourne on Boon Wurrung Country.

In the dark space of the gallery, we are asked to listen deeply to the sounds of Melbourne’s subterranean waterways, recorded with specialist microphones called hydrophones. These underwater microphones were developed by scientists to record biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic sounds in marine environments.

Here, these recordings allow us to hear the sounds of water flowing underneath the concrete surfaces of the city.

Moving forward with art and science

Visual artists synthesise and represent different types of knowledge and language.

The exhibitions are bringing new audiences to ecological science and developing understandings needed to convince people and organisations to take action on climate change.

Alexandra Crosby, Associate Professor, School of Design, University of Technology Sydney

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The internet has been buzzing with rumours of a possible Oasis reunion, with the release of a cryptic post on the band’s X account that features only the date of of August 27 2024 at 8am, in the band’s iconic logo font.

It was announced today the band will be reuniting for performances throughout the United Kingdom and Ireland in 2025.

Oasis were one of the biggest English rock bands in the 1990s and into the 2000s, essential to the Britpop movement, alongside bands such as Blur, Pulp, Supergrass and Suede. England’s answer to the grunge scene coming out of America at the time, Britpop was a brighter take on the rock genre, with catchy tunes and lyrics that often critiqued British culture.

Oasis were known for hit singles, with 1995’s Wonderwall perhaps their most enduring. The band has sold more than 70 million records, had 22 top 10 hits in the United Kingdom, and were one of the only Britpop bands to crack the United States.

But alongside their music, they were just as well known for drama between the two brothers, lead singer Liam Gallagher and lead guitarist Noel Gallagher.

The band haven’t played together since 2009. Like many moments in the band’s history, their last performance – or lack of one – was particularly dramatic.

The band was scheduled to play at V Festival, in the English city of Chelmsford, which was cancelled due to Liam’s bout of laryngitis.

Later, Noel claimed Liam was actually just hungover, prompting a defamation lawsuit between the brothers that was eventually dropped.

Their final show was to be at the 2009 Rock en Seine festival in Paris. But before the band played, they cancelled the performance.

Noel then made the infamous post on the band’s website that confirmed the breakup of the group:

It’s with some sadness and great relief to tell you that I quit Oasis tonight. People will write and say what they like but I simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer.

The two brothers then pursued other projects – Liam’s band Beady Eye, and Noel’s High-Flying Birds – and there has been a long-running, very public animosity between the pair, who have repeatedly said the band was never getting back together.

But fans still held out hope the brothers would find a way to reconcile and reform Oasis. Now, 15 years after they broke up, fans will get the chance to see them perform together again.

If you’ve only heard Wonderwall and are curious what the fuss is all about, here are a few Oasis singles (and B-sides) from their discography that Definitely Maybe might make you a fan, in no particular order.

Supersonic

Supersonic, Oasis’ first single, peaked at 33 on the UK singles chart. Technically only supposed to be a demo and apparently written by Noel in around half an hour, Supersonic shows the band’s ability to rock from the first buzzy guitar slide.

Roll With It

Roll With It was an important song not just for the band, but for Britpop.

Blur and Oasis released singles on the same day in 1995. Dubbed “the battle of Britpop” by the press, Oasis lost the number-one spot to Blur’s Country House. But Roll With It is still a really catchy song that combines glam with the melodic and harmonic influence of the Beatles.

Don’t Look Back in Anger

A UK number-one single, Don’t Look Back in Anger is one of Oasis’ most beautiful songs. They wear their love of the Beatles on their sleeve here with the opening chords sounding like John Lennon’s Imagine and the video clip with their mop tops and coloured glasses.

It’s not just a pastiche. Oasis put their own spin on classic 1960s pop, with chiming guitars, a winding chord progression, a classic, melodic guitar solo, and some surprisingly charming lyrics.

Whatever

Whatever was a stopgap single to tide the band over between albums. It is an overlooked gem, and one of their very best Beatles-esque tunes, with a gorgeous string quartet and a lyric insisting we should all be free to be ourselves.

The Masterplan

A B-side to Wonderwall – a tough act to follow! – The Masterplan really showed what the band was capable of, both instrumentally and harmonically.

The use of dynamics works so well in this song. It starts out very small, and becomes a swell of textures with big horns, lush strings, keyboards, guitars and more.

Stop Crying Your Heart Out

Stop Crying your Heart Out is a surprisingly sweet ballad about resilience and hope for the future.

Oasis lyrics could be abstract, or at other times incredibly simple, succinct and clear. This is an example of the latter. The grain of Liam’s voice and the grandeur of the lush arrangement makes for a beautiful track.

Half the World Away

Half the World Away was a B-side to Whatever, and is in contrast with the lush arrangement of strings and keys on the A-side. Sung by Noel, the song is quiet, acoustic and surprisingly poignant.

Lyla

Lyla is a later-era single. It combines the pop catchiness of a love song with psychedelic touches that really work.

Perhaps the cleverest moment is the changing of time signature during the chorus – it might make it hard to dance in time, but it really works as a fun musical moment that doesn’t happen often in Oasis songs.

Who Feels Love

Who Feels Love is Oasis at their dreamy and psychedelic best – a groovy half-time beat, lots of backwards swirling guitars, and a drone that really makes you want to sway. A modern take on 1960s rock.

Live Forever

The early single Live Forever has become one of Oasis’ most iconic songs.

Written in contrast to the grunge and alternative movements in the US at the time, the song acknowledges the bad times (“Did you ever feel the pain, in the morning rain, as it soaks you to the bone?”), but also has a sense of hope: “We see things they’ll never see – you and I are gonna live forever”.

Jadey O'Regan, Lecturer in Contemporary Music, Sydney Conservatorium of Music. Co-author of "Hooks in Popular Music" (2022), University of Sydney

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He lived and died more than 2,000 years ago but Hannibal is remembered as one of history’s most formidable military commanders and as “Rome’s greatest enemy”.

His daring crossing of the Alps, with an army that included war elephants, shines as evidence to his tactical brilliance.

The Carthaginian general’s innovative military strategies in his struggle against Rome give us a glimpse into why his fame endures.

An early hostility toward Rome

Hannibal Barca was born in 247 BCE in Carthage, an ancient city in Northern Africa, in what is now Tunisia.

His father is credited with instilling in Hannibal a hostility towards Rome, a deep-seated drive that would shape much of his military career.

Hannibal’s leadership qualities and the understanding of military tactics were honed through his experiences in the Carthaginian army.

Hannibal first came into prominence in 219 BCE when the Carthaginian army under his command attacked the city of Saguntum (in modern Spain), triggering the Second Punic War with Rome.

Then came his cunning stratagem that brought his army into Italy all the way from Spain. Hannibal led his troops through the Alps in 218 BCE, catching the Romans off guard.

What’s more, he brought a contingent of war elephants ready for battle.

These elephants were trained to instil fear in the enemy during combat.

In the series of battles with the Romans, Hannibal proved he was capable of undertaking seemingly impossible feats to achieve strategic advantages.

In the Battle of the Trebia (218 BCE) Hannibal lured the Romans into an ambush on the Trebia River.

More victories soon followed. In both the Battle of Lake Trasimene and the Battle of Cannae Hannibal’s army inflicted devastating casualties on the significantly larger Roman forces.

Hannibal’s threat to Rome stemmed from his innovative tactics, psychological warfare, and his ability to exploit Roman leadership’s overconfidence, their rigid adherence to established war tactics, and their initial tendency to underestimate the power and speed of Hannibal’s cavalry.

Hannibal forced Rome to rethink its military strategies and adapt in ways that would ultimately shape the future of the Roman Empire.

Master of strategy

Hannibal’s tactical acumen was unparalleled. He consistently outmanoeuvred Roman armies, employing strategies that took advantage of the terrain and the element of surprise.

His victory at the Battle of Cannae (216 BCE) is illustrative of his tactical genius.

By executing a double envelopment manoeuvre, Hannibal managed to encircle and annihilate the Romans. Hannibal’s clever use of the cavalry allowed him to outflank the Roman infantry.

A year later, he adapted his strategy to a different terrain and used the fog at the Battle of Lake Trasimene to conceal his troops. The effect was a devastating ambush of the Romans.

The news of massive casualties delivered a profound psychological blow to Rome.

Psychological warfare

Hannibal understood the power of psychological warfare.

He knew fear undermined the confidence of Roman soldiers and their leaders.

The phrase “Hannibal is at the gates” became a Roman proverb, reflecting the pervasive horror he instilled in his opponents.

Hannibal’s use of psychological strategies extended to his own troops as well.

To maintain high morale and discipline he ensured his soldiers were well fed and shared in their hardships, sleeping on the ground wrapped in a blanket.

His leadership proved inspirational.

Exploiting Roman weaknesses

Hannibal was adept at identifying the weaknesses in Roman military and political structures. The Roman practice of alternating command between two consuls proved to be a vulnerability that Hannibal exploited.

On several occasions, he timed his attacks to coincide with the consulship of less experienced in command, leading to disastrous defeats for Rome.

Hannibal employed spies and gathered intelligence paid for by silver from Carthaginian-controlled mines in Spain. The information allowed him to anticipate Roman movements and counter their strategies.

Hannibal’s campaigns had lasting effects on Rome. His prolonged presence in Italy, despite never capturing Rome itself, forced the Romans to adapt their military strategies and organisation of their armies.

The Roman military became more flexible and began to place greater emphasis on cavalry and intelligence gathering. They learned from the very tactics that had caused them so much trouble. This led to Rome’s eventual victory in the Second Punic War.

Hannibal’s legacy

Hannibal’s legacy extends beyond his immediate impact on Rome. His military strategies and tactics continue to be studied in military academies around the world.

His ability to conduct successful campaigns with limited resources and his innovative use of terrain and psychological warfare remain relevant for military leaders today.

Commanders such as Julius Caesar, Napoleon, and George S. Patton drew inspiration from Hannibal’s methods, demonstrating the timeless nature of his military genius.

Hannibal’s downfall

Despite his victories against the Romans, Hannibal did not conquer the city of Rome, allowing the Romans to regroup. His position was weakened because his troops lacked reinforcements and supplies from Carthage.

When the Romans adopted a strategy of attrition, avoiding large-scale battles with the Carthaginian general, Hannibal’s army was cut off from supply lines.

At the Battle of Zama in modern-day Tunisia (in 202 BCE) Hannibal was defeated by the young Roman general Scipio Africanus. Scipio used Hannibal’s own tactics against him, marking the end of the Second Punic War.

Hannibal’s career never recovered. Hannibal took his own life in 183 BCE to avoid capture by the Romans.

A long legacy

Hannibal remains a towering figure in military history, not only for his bold campaigns and tactical brilliance but also for his ability to challenge and adapt to the formidable Roman war machine.

His fame as a master strategist continues to captivate and inspire today.

Darius von Guttner Sporzynski, Historian, Australian Catholic University

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